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As the aim of this lecture is to introduce you the study of
Human Computer
Interaction, so that after studying this you will be able to:
. Understand how to
conduct ethnographic interviews
. Discuss briefly
other research techniques
The most powerful tools are simple in concept, but must be
applied with some
sophistication. The most powerful interaction design tool used
is a precise descriptive
model of the user, what he wishes t accomplish, and why. The
sophistication becomes
apparent in the way we construct and use that model.
These user models, which we call personas, are not real people,
but they are based on
the behaviors and motivations of real people and represent them
throughout the design
process. They are composite archetypes based on behavioral data
gathered from many
actual users through ethnographic interviews. We discover out
personas during the
course of the Research phase and formalize them in the Modeling
phase, by
understanding our personas, we achieve and understanding of our
users’ goals in
specific context—a critical tool for translating user data into
design framework.
There are many useful models that can serve as tools for the
interaction designer, but
it is felt that personas are among the strongest.
22.1 Why Model?
Models are used extensively in design, development, and the
sciences. They are
powerful tools for representing complex structures and
relationships for the purpose
of better understanding or visualizing them. Without models, we
are left to make
sense of unstructured, raw data, without the benefit of the pig
picture or any
organizing principle. Good models emphasize the salient features
of the structures or
relationships they represent and de-emphasize the less
significant details.
Because we are designing for users, it is important that we can
understand and
visualize the salient aspects of their relationships with each
other, with their social and
physical environment and of course, with the products we hope to
design.
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Just as physicists create models of the atom based on raw,
observed data and intuitive
synthesis of the patterns in their data, so must designers
create models of users based
on raw, observed behaviors and intuitive synthesis often
patterns in the data. Only
after we formalize such patterns can we hope to systematically
construct patterns of
interactions that smoothly match the behaviors, mental models
and goals of users.
Personas provide this formalization.
22.2 Personas
To create a product that must satisfy a broad audience of users,
logic tells you to make
it as broad in its functionality as possible to accommodate the
most people. This logic,
however, is flawed. The best way to successfully accommodate a
variety of users is to
design for specific types of individuals with specific needs.
When you broadly and arbitrarily extend a product’s
functionality to include many
constituencies, you increase the cognitive load and navigational
overhead for all
users. Facilities that map please some users will likely
interfere with the satisfaction
of other.
A simple example of how personas are useful is shown in figure
below, if you try to
design an automobile that pleases every possible driver, you end
up with a car with
every possible feature, but which pleases nobody. Software today
is too often
designed to please to many users, resulting in low user
satisfaction
But by designing different cars for different people with
different specific goals, as
shown in figure below, we are able to create designs that other
people with similar
needs to our target drivers also find satisfying. The same hold
true for the design of
digital products and software.
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The key is in choosing the right individuals to design for, ones
whose needs represent
the needs of a larger set of key constituents, and knowing how
to prioritize design
elements to address the needs of the most important users
without significantly
inconveniencing secondary users. Personas provide a powerful
tool for understanding
user needs, differentiating between different types of users,
and prioritizing which
users are the most important to target in the design of function
and behavior.
Personas were introduced as a tool for user modeling, they have
gained great
popularity in the usability community, but they have also been
the subjects of some
misunderstandings.
Strengths of personas as a design tool
The persona is a powerful, multipurpose design tool that helps
overcome several
problems that currently plague the development of digital
products. Personas help
designers”
. Determine what a
product should do and how it should behave. Persona goals
and tasks provide the basis for the design effort.
. Communicate with
stakeholders, developers, and other designers. Personas
provide a common language for discussing design decisions, and
also help
keep the design centered on users at every step in the process.
. Build consensus and
commitment to the design. With a common language
comes a common understanding. Personas reduce the need for
elaborate
diagrammatic models because, as it is found, it is easier to
understand the
many nuances of user behavior through the narrative structures
that personas
employ.
. Measure the
design’s effectiveness. Design choices can be tested on a persona
in the same way that they can be show to a real user during the
formative
process. Although this doesn’t replace the need to test on real
users. It
provides a powerful reality check tool for designers trying to
solve design
problems. This allows design iteration to occur rapidly and
inexpensively at
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the whiteboard, and it results in a far stronger design baseline
when the time
comes to test with real users.
. Contribute to other
product-related efforts such as marketing and sales plan. It
has been seen that clients repurpose personas across their
organization,
informing marketing campaigns, organizational structure, and
other strategic
planning activities. Business units outside of product
development desire
sophisticated knowledge of a product’s users and typically view
personas with
great interest.
Personas and user-centered design
Personas also resolve three User-Centered design issues that
arise during product
development:
. The elastic user
. Self-referential
design
. Design edge cases
The elastic user
Although satisfying the user is goal, the term user causes
trouble when applied to
specific design problems and contexts. Its imprecision makes it
unusable as a design
tool—every person on a product team has his own conceptions of
the user and what
the user needs. When it comes time to make a product decisions,
this “user” becomes
elastic, bending and stretching to fit the opinions and
presuppositions of whoever has
the floor.
If programmers find it convenient to simply drop a user into a
confuting file system of
nested hierarchical folders to find the information she needs,
they define the elastic
user as an accommodating, computer-literate power user. Other
times, when they find
it more convenient to step the user through a difficult process
with a wizard, they
define the elastic user as an unsophisticated first-time user.
Designing for the elastic
user gives the developer license to code as he pleases while
still apparently serving
“the user”. However, our goal is to design software that
properly meets real user
needs. Real users—and the personas representing them—are not
elastic, but rather
have specific requirements based on their goals, capabilities,
and contexts.
Self-referential design
Self-referential design occurs when designers or developers
project their own goals,
motivations, skills, and mental models onto a product’s design.
Most “cool” product
designs fall into this category: the audience doesn’t extend
beyond people like the
designer, which is fine for a narrow range of products and
completely inappropriate
for most others. Similarly, programmers apply self-referential
design when they create
implementation-model products. They understand perfectly how it
works and are
comfortable with such products. Few non-programmers would
concur.
Design edge cases
Another syndrome that personas help prevent is designing for
edge cases—those
situations that might possibly happen, but usually won’t for the
target personas.
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Naturally, edge cases must be programmed for, but they should
never be the design
focus. Personas provide a reality check for the design.
Personas are based on research
Personas must, like any model, be based on real-world
observation. The primary
source of data used to synthesize personas must be from
ethnographic interviews,
contextual inquiry, or other similar dialogues with and
observation of actual and
potential users. Other data that can support and supplement the
creation of personas
include, in rough order of efficacy:
. Interviews with
users outside of their use contexts
. Information about
users supplied by stakeholders and subject matter experts
. Market research
data such as focus groups and surveys
. Market segmentation
models
. Data gathered from
literature reviews and previous studies
However, none of this supplemental data can take the place of
direct interaction with
and observation of users in their native environments. Almost
every word in a welldeveloped
persona’s description can be traced back to user quotes or
observed
behaviors.
Personas are represented as individuals
Personas are user models that are represented as specific,
individual humans. They are
not actual people, but are synthesized directly from
observations of real people. One
of the key elements that allow personas to be successful as user
models is that they are
personifications. They are represented as specific individuals.
This is appropriate and
effective because of the unique aspects of personas as user
models: they engage the
empathy of the development team toward the human target of
design. Empathy is
critical for the designers, who will be making their decisions
for design frameworks
and details based on both the cognitive and emotional dimensions
of the persona, as
typified by the persona’s goals. However, the power of empathy
should not be quickly
discounted for other team members.
Personas represent classes of users in context
Although personas are represented as specific individuals, at
the same time they
represent a class or type of user of a particular interactive
product. Specifically,
persona encapsulates a distinct set of usage patterns, behavior
patterns regarding the
use of a particular product. These patterns are identified
through an analysis of
ethnographic interviews, supported by supplemental data if
necessary or appropriate.
These patterns, along with work or lifestyle-related roles
define personas as user
archetype. Personas are also referred as composite user
archetypes because personas
are in sense composites assembled by clustering related usage
patterns observed
across individuals in similar roles during the research phase.
Personas and reuse
Organizations with more than one product often want to reuse the
same personas.
However, to be effective, personas must be context-specific—they
should be focused
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on the behaviors and goals related to the specific domain of a
particular product.
Personas, because they are constructed from specific
observations of users interacting
with specific products in specific contexts, cannot easily be
reused across products
even when those products form a closely linked suite. Even then,
the focus of
behaviors may be quite different in one product than in another,
so researchers must
take care to perform supplemental user research.
Archetypes versus stereotype
Don’t confuse persona archetype with stereotypes. Stereotypes
are, in most respects,
the antithesis of well-developed personas. Stereotypes represent
designer or
researcher biases and assumptions, rather than factual data.
Personas developed
drawing on inadequate research run the risk of degrading to
stereotypical caricatures.
Personas must be developed and treated with dignity and respect
for the people whom
they represent. Personas also bring to the forefront issues of
social and political
consciousness. Because personas provide a precise design target
and also serve as a
communication tool to the development team, the designer much
choose particular
demographic characteristics with care.
Personas should be typical and believable, but not
stereotypical.
Personas explore ranges of behavior
The target market for a product describes demographics as well
as lifestyle and
sometimes job roles. What it does not describe are the ranges of
different behaviors
that members of that target market exhibit regarding the product
itself and productrelated
contexts. Ranges are distinct from averages: personas do not
seek to establish
an average user, but rather to identify exemplary types of
behaviors along identified
ranges.
Personas fill the need to understand how users behave within
given product domain—
how they think about it and what they do with it—as well as how
they behave in other
contexts that may affect the scope and definition of the
product. Because personas
must describe ranges f behavior to capture the various possible
ways people behave
with the product, designers must identify a collection or cast
of personas associated
with any given product.
Personas must have motivations
All humans have motivations that drive their behaviors; some are
obvious, and many
are subtle. It is critical that personas capture these
motivations in the form of goals.
The goals we enumerate for our personas are shorthand notation
for motivations that
not only point at specific usage patterns, but also provide a
reason why those
behaviors exist. Understanding why a user performs certain tasks
gives designers
great power to improve or even eliminate those tasks, yet still
accomplish the same
goals.
Personas versus user roles
User roles and user profiles each share similarities with
personas; that is, they both
seek to describe relationships of users to products. But persona
and the methods by
which they are employed as a design tool differ significantly
from roles and profiles
in several key aspects.
User roles or role models, are an abstraction, a defined
relationship between a class of
users and their problems, including needs, interests,
expectations, and patterns of
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behavior. Holtzblatt and Beyer’s use of roles in consolidated
flow, cultural, physical,
and sequence models is similar in that it attempts to isolate
various relationships
abstracted from the people possessing these relationships.
Problem with user role
There are some problems with user roles:
. It is more
difficult to properly identify relationships in the abstract, isolated
from people who posses them—the human power of empathy cannot
easily be
brought to bear on abstract classes of people.
. Both methods focus
on tasks almost exclusively and neglect the use of goals
as an organizing principle for design thinking and synthesis.
. Holzblatt and
Beyer’s consolidated models, although useful and encyclopedic
in scope, are difficult to bring together as a coherent tool for
developing,
communicating, and measuring design decisions.
Personas address each of these problems. Well-developed personas
incorporate the
same type of relationships as user roles do, but express them in
terms of goals and
examples in narrative.
Personas versus user profile
Many usability parishioners use the terms persona and user
profile synonymously.
There is no problem with this if the profile is truly generated
from ethnographic data
and encapsulates the depth of information. Unfortunately, all
too often, it has been
seen that user profile =s that reflect Webster’s definition of
profile as a ‘brief
biographical sketch.” In other words, user profiles are often a
name attached to brief,
usually demographic data, along with a short, fictional
paragraph describing the kind
of car this person drives, how many kids he has, where he lives,
and what he does for
a living. This kind of user profile is likely to be a user
stereotype and is not useful as a
design tool. Personas, although has names and sometimes even
cars and family
members, these are employed sparingly as narrative tools to help
better communicate
the real data and are not ends in themselves.
Personas versus market segments
Marketing professionals may be familiar with a process similar
to persona
development because it shares some process similarities with
market definition. The
main difference between market segments and design personas are
that the former are
based on demographics and distributed channels, where as the
latter are based on user
behaviors and goals. The two are not the same and don’t serve
the same purpose. The
marketing personas shed light on the sales process, whereas the
design personas shed
light on the development process. This said, market segments
play role in personas
development.
User personas versus non-user personas
A frequent product definition error is to target people who
review, purchase, or
administer the product, but who are not end users. Many products
are designed for
columnists who review the product in consumer publications. IT
managers who
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purchase enterprise products are, typically, not the users the
products. Designing for
the purchaser is a frequent mistake in the development of
digital products.
In certain cases, such as for enterprise systems that require
maintenance and
administrator interface; it is appropriate to create non-user
personas. This requires that
research be expanded to include these types of people.
22.3 Goals
If personas provide the context for sets of observed behaviors,
goals are the drivers
behind those behaviors. A persona without goals can still serve
as a useful
communication tool, but it remains useless as a design tools.
User goals serve as a
lens through which designers must consider the functions of a
product. The function
and behavior of the product must address goals via
tasks—typically as few tasks as
absolutely necessary.
Goals motivate usage patterns
People’s or personas’ goals motivate them to behave the way they
do. Thus, goals
provide not only answer to why and how personas desire to use a
product, but can
also serve as a shorthand in the designer’s mind for the
sometimes complex behaviors
in which a persona engages and, therefore, for the tasks as
well.
Goals must be inferred from qualitative data
You can’t ask a person what his goals are directly: Either he
won’t be able to
articulate them, or he won’t be accurate or even perfectly
honest. People simply aren’t
well prepared to answer such questions accurately. Therefore,
designers and
researchers need to carefully reconstruct goals from observed
behaviors, answers to
other questions, non-verbal cues, and clues from the environment
such as book titles
on shelves. One of the most critical tasks in the modeling of
personas is identifying
goals and expressing them succinctly: each goal should be
expressed as a simple
sentence.
22.4 Types of goals
Goals come in many different verities. The most important goals
from a user-centered
design standpoint are the goals of users. These are, generally,
first priority in a design,
especially in the design of consumer products. Non-user goals
can also come into
play, especially in enterprise environments. The goals of
organizations, employers,
customers, and partners all need to be acknowledged, if not
addressed directly, by the
product’s design.
User goals
User personas have user goals. These range from broad
aspirations to highly
pragmatic product expectations. User goals fall into three basic
categories
. Life goals
. Experience goals
. End goals
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Life goals
Life goals represent personal aspirations of the user that
typically go beyond the
context of the product being designed. These goals represent
deep drives and
motivations that help explain why the user is trying to
accomplish the end goals he
seeks to accomplish. These can be useful in understanding the
broader context or
relationships the user may have with others and her expectations
of the product from a
brand perspective.
Examples:
. Be the best at what
I do
. Get onto the fast
track and win that big promotion
. Learn all there is
to know about this field
. Be a paragon of
ethics, modesty and trust
Life goals rarely figure directly into the design of specific
elements of an interface.
However, they are very much worth keeping in mind.
Experience goals
Experience goals are simple, universal, and personal.
Paradoxically, this makes them
difficult for many people to talk about, especially in the
context of impersonal
business. Experience goals express how someone wants to feel
while using a product
or the quality of their interaction with the product.
Examples
. Don’t make mistakes
. Feel competent and
confident
. Have funExperience
goals represent the unconscious goals that people bring to
any software product. They bring these goals to the context
without consciously
realizing it and without necessarily even being able to
articulate the goals.
End goals
End goals represent the user’s expectations of the tangible
outcomes of using specific
product. When you pick op a cell phone, you likely have an
outcome in mind.
Similarly, when you search the web for a particular item or
piece of information, you
have some clear end goals to accomplish. End goals must be met
for users to think
that a product is worth their time and money, most of the goals
a product needs to
concern itself with are, therefore, end goals such as the
following:
. Find the best price
. Finalize the press
release
. Process the
customer’s order
. Create a numerical
model of the business
Non-user goals
Customer goals, corporate goals, and technical goals are all
non-user goals. Typically,
these goals must be acknowledged and considered, but they do not
form the basis for
the design direction. Although these goals need to be addressed,
they must not be
addressed at the expense of the user.
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Types of non-user goals
. Customer goals
. Corporate goals
. Technical goals
Customer goals
Customers, as already discussed, have different goals than
users. The exact nature of
these goals varies quite a bit between consumer and enterprise
products. Consumer
customers are often parents, relatives, or friends who often
have concerns about the
safety and happiness of the persons for whom they are purchasing
the product.
Enterprise customers are typically IT managers, and they often
have concerns about
security, ease of maintenance, and ease of customization.
Corporate goals
Business and other organizations have their own requirements for
software, and they
are as high level as the personal goals of the individual. “To
increase our profit” is
pretty fundamental to the broad of directors or the
stockholders. The designers use
these goals to stay focused on the bigger issues and to avoid
getting distracted by
tasks or other false goals.
Examples
. Increase profit
. Increase market
share
. Defeat the
competition
. Use resources more
efficiently
. Offer more products
or services
Technical goals
Most of the software-based products we use everyday are created
with technical goals
in mind. Many of these goals ease the task of software creation,
which is a
programmer’s goal. This is why they take precedence at the
expense of the users’
goals.
Example:
. Save money
. Run in a browser
. Safeguard data
integrity
. Increase program
execution efficiency
22.5 Constructing personas
Creating believable and useful personas requires an equal
measure of detailed analysis
and creative synthesis. A standardized process aids both of
these activities
significantly.
Process of constructing personas involve following steps:
8. Revisit the persona hypothesis
9. Map interview subjects to behavioral variables
10. Identify significant behavior patterns
11. Synthesize characteristics and relevant goals.
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12. Check for completeness.
13. Develop narratives
14. Designate persona types
Revisit the persona hypothesis
After you have completed your research and performed a cursory
organization of the
data, you next compare patterns identified in the data to the
assumptions make in the
persona hypothesis. Were the possible roles that you identified
truly distinct? Were
the behavioral variables you identified valid? Were there
additional, unanticipated
ones, or ones you anticipated that weren’t supported by data?
If your data is at variance with your assumptions, you need to
add, subtract, or modify
the roles and behaviors you anticipated. If the variance is
significant enough, you may
consider additional interviews to cover any gaps in the new
behavioral ranges that
you’ve discovered.
Map interview subjects to behavioral variables
After you are satisfied that you have identified the entire set
f behavioral variables
exhibited by your interview subjects, the next step is to map
each interviewee against
each variable range that applies. The precision of this mapping
isn’t as critical as
identifying the placement f interviewees in relationship to each
other. It is the way
multiple subjects cluster on each variable axis that is
significant as show in figure.
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Identify significant behavior patterns
After you have mapped your interview subjects, you see clusters
of particular subjects
that occur across multiple ranges or variables. A set of
subjects who cluster in six to
eight different variables will likely represent a significant
behavior patterns that will
form the basis of a persona. Some specialized role may exhibit
only one significant
pattern, but typically you will find two or even three such
patterns. For a pattern to be
valid, there must be a logical or causative connection between
the clustered behaviors,
not just a spurious correlation.
Synthesize characteristic and relevant goals
For each significant behavior pattern you identify, you must
synthesize details from
your data. Describe the potential use environment, typical
workday, current solutions
and frustrations, and relevant relationships with other.
Brief bullet points describing characteristics of the behavior
are sufficient. Stick to
observed behaviors as mush as possible; a description or two
that sharpen the
personalities of your personas and help bring them to life.
One fictional detail at this stage is important: the persona’s
first name and last names.
The name should be evocative of the type of person the persona
is, without tending
toward caricature or stereotype.
Goals are the most critical detail to synthesize from your
interviews and observations
of behaviors. Goals are best derived from an analysis of the
group of behaviors
comprising each persona. By identifying the logical connections
between each
persona’s behaviors, you can begin to infer the goals that lead
to those behaviors. You
can infer goals both by observing actions and by analyzing
subject responses to goaloriented
interview questions.
Develop narratives
Your list of bullet point characteristics and goals point to the
essence of complex
behaviors, but leaves much implied. Third-person narrative is
far more powerful in
conveying the persona’s attitudes, needs, and problems to other
team members. It also
deepens the designer’s connection to the personas and their
motivations.
A typical narrative should not be longer than one or two pages
of prose. The narrative
must be nature, contain some fictional events and reactions, but
as previously
discussed, it is not a short story. The best narrative quickly
introduces the persona in
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terms of his job or lifestyle, and briefly sketches a day in his
life, including peeves,
concerns, and interests that have direct bearing on the product.
Be careful about precision of detail in your descriptions. The
detail should not exceed
the depth of your research.
When you start developing your narrative, choose photographs f
your personas.
Photographs make them feel more real as you create the narrative
and engage others
on the team when you are finished.
Designate persona types
By now your personas should feel very much like a set of real
people that you feel
you know. The final step in persona construction finishes the
process f turning your
qualitative research into a powerful set of design tools.
There are six types of persona, and they are typically
designated in roughly the
ordered listed here:
. Primary
. Secondary
. Supplemental
. Customer
. Served
. Negative
Primary personas
Primary personas represent the primary target for the design of
an interface. There can
be only one primary persona per interface for a product, but it
is possible for some
products to have multiple distinct interfaces, each targeted at
a distinct primary
persona.
Secondary personas
Sometimes a situation arises in which a persona would be
entirely satisfied by a
primary persona’s interface if one or two specific additional
needs were addressed by
the interface. This indicates that the persona in question is a
secondary persona for
that interface, and the design of that interface must address
those needs without
getting in the way of the primary persona. Typically, an
interface will have zero to
two secondary personas.
Supplemental personas
User personas that are not primary or secondary are supplemental
personas: they are
completely satisfied by one of the primary interface. There can
be any number of
supplemental personas associated with an interface. Often
political personas—the one
added to the cast to address stakeholder assumptions—become
supplemental
personas.
Customer persona
Customer personas address the needs of customers, not end users.
Typically, customer
personas are treated like secondary personas. However, in some
enterprise
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environment, some customer personas may be primary personas for
their own
administrative interface.
Served personas
Served personas are somewhat different from the persona types
already discussed.
They are not users of the product at all; however, they are
directly affected by the use
of the product. Served personas provide a way to track
second-order social and
physical ramifications of products. These are treated like
secondary personas.
Negative personas
Like served personas, negative personas aren’t users of the
product. Unlike served
personas, their use is purely rhetorical, to help communicate to
other members of the
team who should definitely not be the design target for the
product. Good candidates
for negative personas are often technology-savvy early-adopter
personas for consumer
products and IT specialists for end-user enterprise products. |
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